18th Century New England

New England was a land of rapid rivers and rocky soil. Some 95% of New England had roots in England, which came to America in groups, settling in self-governing towns. In New England, the town meeting was the original seat of power in the town. This power later shifted to selectmen. Occupations in New England were primarily related to fishing and commerce due to the scarcity of laborers and conditions that were not conducive to farming. Many were employed in the field of shipbuilding. Contrary to popular conceptions, New England controlled the trade in slavery and rum through the triangular trade with the West Indies and Africa, which brought great wealth to New England.

A high level of religious fervor continued in New England in the 18th century launching a "feverish growth" in the Protestant faith. Churches were built at an unprecendented rate as near 80% of the population sought worship. A religious revival occurred in the middle of the 1700's in New England that included England, Wales, Scotland and all of the American colonies. Evangelism was widespread as word of the "new birth" was thrust forward by Presbyterians, Baptists and Methodists. As these denominations grew, Anglicans, Quakers and Congregationalists were left behind.

In the 18th century, the anti-Christian philosophy of the Deist was put forth. Deism, while it emphasized morality, rejected the divinity of Christ and was embraced by many of the upper-class Americans such as Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. Deists consisted of a very small minority of Americans and were greatly overshadowed by the evangelicalism that was to follow in the 19th century. The Deist philosophy attracted a small following in Europe in the latter 17th century and in America in the early 18th century. Deists called all religious claims to be subject to scrutiny of reason. Thomas Jefferson was heavily influenced by Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, an English deist.

In the 18th century, churches came in all shapes and sizes from small and simple to elaborate buildings in the urban areas. The church architecture reflected the customs, traditions, wealth and social status of the denominations they represented. In large, urban areas, the plethora of churches altered the skyline of the cities.

George Whtiefield, of England, one of the great evangelists, first visited the Colonies in 1738 and was equaled with George Washington in popularity. His preaching tour lasted 1739-1741 and in Boston, was seen by as many as 30,000 people. In the 1730's an outpouring of the Holy Spirit bathed the Colonies. In mass open-air revivals, powerful preachers brought thousands to the new birth of Jesus Christ. This Great Awakening spread from New England into the Southern colonies and lasted well into the 19th century.

One of the most important American preachers was Jonathan Edwards. He was considered a harbinger of the Great Awakening with his church in Northampton, MA. Edwards was the principal intellectual interpreter and apologist for the Awakening. He was a world class theologian, writer of many important works and treatises ever produced in America. He became the president of Princeton and died shortly thereafter of smallpox in 1758.

Evangelical Christians have been responsible for the construction of numerous universities to train men for ministry. Princeton was established in 1746 by Presbyterians.

The Presbyterians sent Samuel Davies to Virginia and the South to evangelize. He established himself in Hanover County, VA in the 1740's and was so successful in converting members of the Church of England to the new birth, that he was frequently seen in confrontations with the local officials.

Galvanized by the Great Awakening, the Baptists, along with the Methodists began proselytizing in the 18th century and by the 19th century, had grown to become the principal Protestant denomination in the southern and western United States.

Methodism, began by John Wesley in England, came to the American colonies in the 1760's. Though Wesley opposed the American Revolution, Methodists gained substantial growth in the colonies and in the new Republic. Responsible for this growth was Francis Asbury who ordained 4,000 ministers who traveled 270,000 miles by horseback to every part of the United States spreading the Methodist faith. The first Methodist meeting was held in New York City in a Manhattan riggint house in 1766. Though only five people attended this launch, the Methodists had grown to some four million by 1846.

Contrary to popular conception, slavery existed in New England, though not on the scale as in the South due to the poor soil of New England. Early Puritans justified slavery on economic, spiritual and legal grounds. Puritans saw slavery as a means of cheap labor, a scarce commodity in New England. One indentured servant equaled the cost of twenty black slaves. As in the South, Puritans saw African slaves as pagans and therefore not equal to God's chosen people; they were a people in need of direction, guidance, education and conversion. The Colony of Massachusetts sanctioned slavery in 1641, passing a statute to legalize slavery within the English colonies. Though never established by law in Connecticut, the courts recognized slavery by action and practice. The trading of African slaves with the West Indies began in New England in 1638, with direct trade for slaves in 1644 and by 1700, New England was the greatest slave-trading region in the New World with the most active states being Massachusetts and Rhode Island, while New Hampshire and Connecticut followed closely behind.

New England was home port for many ships travellign to the West Indies and western Africa involved in the slave trade, trading New England natural resources for slaves, sugar and rum. Many New England ships sailed directly to Africa to purchase kidnapped Africans for grueling journeys to the West Indies and colonies, especially southern colonies. Many a New England fortune was won on the trade of African slaves. These slave traders were highly regarded within their communities and were regarded as business entrepreneurs. Indeed, the slave trade formed the foundation of economic life in New England upon which all other industries fed.

A slave uprising in New York broke out 6 Apr 1712 at midnight. The 23 rebel slaves, armed with guns, hatchets and swords, set fire to a building in the middle of town, which quickly spread to surrounding buildings. As the white colonists strove to extinguish the fire, the slaves attacked and then escaped. Near nine whites had been shot, stabbed or beaten to death, while another six were wounded. The militia was mustered, including soldiers from a nearby fort and twenty-seven slaves were soon captured. Six immediately committed suicide, the remainder were executed by being burned alive. This insurrection was followed by strict laws being enacted that forbid more than three black men to meet together and forbidding slaves from handling firearms. Rebellion and rape would be met with execution and masters were forbidden to free their slaves without first paying a bond of £200, to be paid to the free slave if that slave could not function indpendenly by providing for themselves.

By 1774, Connecticut held the largest number of slaves in New England. Connecticut held many of the resources that were closely related to the slave trade including iron, copper, shipbuilding and rum. Because of the shortage of laborers in New England, slaves were often taught a trade or skill and often managed their owner's business. However, in New England, as in the South, slaves were the property of their owners.

In Massachusetts, Governor John Winthrop owned no slaves. Both John and Samuel Adams opposed slavery.

Inadvertently, the American Revolution put an end to the highly profitable slave trade in New England by preventing the importation of slaves and by 1790, all New England states had abolished slavery.

In literature, the 18th century saw many writers focusing on the injustices of slavery, whether they be real of imagined, whether they be the norm or unique situations. Such was the case of Harriet Beecher Stowe, a 19th century author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" based upon an isolated incident in which a slave owner mistreated his slaves to his own isolation and social condemnation by his own peers.

In 18th century New England, women played active roles shaping their own lives and influenced the culture through their influence as parents and members of the communities in which they lived. Women held a position of moral authority within the society in which they lived. Affecting not only their own homes, women influenced seminaries, educational institutions, voluntary associations, charities and churches, as well as political movements.

It was during the 18th century that Europe played out their struggle for power on American soil. Five major conflicts are the result of that power struggle, including: King Philip's War (1675-1676), King William's War (1688-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), King George's War (1744-1748) and the French-Indian War (1754-1763). Each of these wars represented the power struggles for the New World between England, France and Spain.

Many famous documents have their origin in the 18th century, including the Act Repealing the Stamp Act of 18 Mar 1766 and The American Crisis by Thomas Paine. Perhaps the greatest of these documents was the Articles of Confederation, written in March 1781. (See the entire text to the right.) It is in the Articles of Confederation that we see the true intent for the American government. This document was later replaced by a more ambiguous and less popular Constitution, which passed only after the Bill of Rights had been added. We would later see the Southern States secede due to the ambiguity of the Constitution, in order to return to the States Rights issues guaranteed in the Articles of Confederation but not in the Constitution. We are reaping the rewards in our huge federalized government today, which overrides state's rights for federal socialization.


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New England was a land of rapid rivers and rocky soil. Some 95% of New England had roots in England, which came to America in groups, settling in self-governing towns. In New England, the town meeting was the original seat of power in the town. This power later shifted to selectmen. Occupations in New England were primarily related to fishing and commerce due to the scarcity of laborers and conditions that were not conducive to farming. Many were employed in the field of shipbuilding. Contrary to popular conceptions, New England controlled the trade in slavery and rum through the triangular trade with the West Indies and Africa, which brought great wealth to New England. A high level of religious fervor continued in New England in the 18th century launching a "feverish growth" in the Protestant faith. Churches were built at an unprecendented rate as near 80% of the population sought worship. A religious revival occurred in the middle of the 1700's in New England that included England, Wales, Scotland and all of the American colonies. Evangelism was widespread as word of the "new birth" was thrust forward by Presbyterians, Baptists and Methodists. As these denominations grew, Anglicans, Quakers and Congregationalists were left behind. In the 18th century, the anti-Christian philosophy of the Deist was put forth. Deism, while it emphasized morality, rejected the divinity of Christ and was embraced by many of the upper-class Americans such as Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. Deists consisted of a very small minority of Americans and were greatly overshadowed by the evangelicalism that was to follow in the 19th century. The Deist philosophy attracted a small following in Europe in the latter 17th century and in America in the early 18th century. Deists called all religious claims to be subject to scrutiny of reason. Thomas Jefferson was heavily influenced by Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, an English deist. In the 18th century, churches came in all shapes and sizes from small and simple to elaborate buildings in the urban areas. The church architecture reflected the customs, traditions, wealth and social status of the denominations they represented. In large, urban areas, the plethora of churches altered the skyline of the cities. George Whtiefield, of England, one of the great evangelists, first visited the Colonies in 1738 and was equaled with George Washington in popularity. His preaching tour lasted 1739-1741 and in Boston, was seen by as many as 30,000 people. In the 1730's an outpouring of the Holy Spirit bathed the Colonies. In mass open-air revivals, powerful preachers brought thousands to the new birth of Jesus Christ. This Great Awakening spread from New England into the Southern colonies and lasted well into the 19th century. One of the most important American preachers was Jonathan Edwards. He was considered a harbinger of the Great Awakening with his church in Northampton, MA. Edwards was the principal intellectual interpreter and apologist for the Awakening. He was a world class theologian, writer of many important works and treatises ever produced in America. He became the president of Princeton and died shortly thereafter of smallpox in 1758. Evangelical Christians have been responsible for the construction of numerous universities to train men for ministry. Princeton was established in 1746 by Presbyterians. The Presbyterians sent Samuel Davies to Virginia and the South to evangelize. He established himself in Hanover County, VA in the 1740's and was so successful in converting members of the Church of England to the new birth, that he was frequently seen in confrontations with the local officials. Galvanized by the Great Awakening, the Baptists, along with the Methodists began proselytizing in the 18th century and by the 19th century, had grown to become the principal Protestant denomination in the southern and western United States. Methodism, began by John Wesley in England, came to the American colonies in the 1760's. Though Wesley opposed the American Revolution, Methodists gained substantial growth in the colonies and in the new Republic. Responsible for this growth was Francis Asbury who ordained 4,000 ministers who traveled 270,000 miles by horseback to every part of the United States spreading the Methodist faith. The first Methodist meeting was held in New York City in a Manhattan riggint house in 1766. Though only five people attended this launch, the Methodists had grown to some four million by 1846. Contrary to popular conception, slavery existed in New England, though not on the scale as in the South due to the poor soil of New England. Early Puritans justified slavery on economic, spiritual and legal grounds. Puritans saw slavery as a means of cheap labor, a scarce commodity in New England. One indentured servant equaled the cost of twenty black slaves. As in the South, Puritans saw African slaves as pagans and therefore not equal to God's chosen people; they were a people in need of direction, guidance, education and conversion. The Colony of Massachusetts sanctioned slavery in 1641, passing a statute to legalize slavery within the English colonies. Though never established by law in Connecticut, the courts recognized slavery by action and practice. The trading of African slaves with the West Indies began in New England in 1638, with direct trade for slaves in 1644 and by 1700, New England was the greatest slave-trading region in the New World with the most active states being Massachusetts and Rhode Island, while New Hampshire and Connecticut followed closely behind. New England was home port for many ships travellign to the West Indies and western Africa involved in the slave trade, trading New England natural resources for slaves, sugar and rum. Many New England ships sailed directly to Africa to purchase kidnapped Africans for grueling journeys to the West Indies and colonies, especially southern colonies. Many a New England fortune was won on the trade of African slaves. These slave traders were highly regarded within their communities and were regarded as business entrepreneurs. Indeed, the slave trade formed the foundation of economic life in New England upon which all other industries fed. A slave uprising in New York broke out 6 Apr 1712 at midnight. The 23 rebel slaves, armed with guns, hatchets and swords, set fire to a building in the middle of town, which quickly spread to surrounding buildings. As the white colonists strove to extinguish the fire, the slaves attacked and then escaped. Near nine whites had been shot, stabbed or beaten to death, while another six were wounded. The militia was mustered, including soldiers from a nearby fort and twenty-seven slaves were soon captured. Six immediately committed suicide, the remainder were executed by being burned alive. This insurrection was followed by strict laws being enacted that forbid more than three black men to meet together and forbidding slaves from handling firearms. Rebellion and rape would be met with execution and masters were forbidden to free their slaves without first paying a bond of £200, to be paid to the free slave if that slave could not function indpendenly by providing for themselves. By 1774, Connecticut held the largest number of slaves in New England. Connecticut held many of the resources that were closely related to the slave trade including iron, copper, shipbuilding and rum. Because of the shortage of laborers in New England, slaves were often taught a trade or skill and often managed their owner's business. However, in New England, as in the South, slaves were the property of their owners. In Massachusetts, Governor John Winthrop owned no slaves. Both John and Samuel Adams opposed slavery. Inadvertently, the American Revolution put an end to the highly profitable slave trade in New England by preventing the importation of slaves and by 1790, all New England states had abolished slavery. In literature, the 18th century saw many writers focusing on the injustices of slavery, whether they be real of imagined, whether they be the norm or unique situations. Such was the case of Harriet Beecher Stowe, a 19th century author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" based upon an isolated incident in which a slave owner mistreated his slaves to his own isolation and social condemnation by his own peers. In 18th century New England, women played active roles shaping their own lives and influenced the culture through their influence as parents and members of the communities in which they lived. Women held a position of moral authority within the society in which they lived. Affecting not only their own homes, women influenced seminaries, educational institutions, voluntary associations, charities and churches, as well as political movements. It was during the 18th century that Europe played out their struggle for power on American soil. Five major conflicts are the result of that power struggle, including: King Philip's War (1675-1676), King William's War (1688-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), King George's War (1744-1748) and the French-Indian War (1754-1763). Each of these wars represented the power struggles for the New World between England, France and Spain. Many famous documents have their origin in the 18th century, including the Act Repealing the Stamp Act of 18 Mar 1766 and The American Crisis by Thomas Paine. Perhaps the greatest of these documents was the Articles of Confederation, written in March 1781. (See the entire text to the right.) It is in the Articles of Confederation that we see the true intent for the American government. This document was later replaced by a more ambiguous and less popular Constitution, which passed only after the Bill of Rights had been added. We would later see the Southern States secede due to the ambiguity of the Constitution, in order to return to the States Rights issues guaranteed in the Articles of Confederation but not in the Constitution. We are reaping the rewards in our huge federalized government today, which overrides state's rights for federal socialization.		To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting. Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. I. The Stile of this Confederacy shall be "The United States of America". II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. III. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. V. For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a powerreserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year. No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States. In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote. Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendence on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. VI. No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain. No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage. No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. VII. When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. IX. The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article -- of sending and receiving ambassadors -- entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever -- of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated -- of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace -- appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies commited on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition to Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before presecribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States -- fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States -- regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated -- establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office -- appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers -- appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States -- making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations. The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'A Committee of the States', and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction -- to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses -- to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted -- to build and equip a navy -- to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judeg can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled. The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. X. The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite. XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States. XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pleged. XIII. Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said Confederation are submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America. Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777 In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781