Anglo-Saxon England lasted from about 597 until the 9th century.

Following the heels of the collapse of the Roman government in Britain, the island was overcome by a Germanic invasion of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The first of these peoples arrived in England at the invitation of Vortigern, then King of Mercia, to serve as mercenaries in the fifth century. These Germanic invaders were primarily Saxon in the beginning but as the invasion progressed, other Germanic tribes joined the Saxons. The events are recorded by Gildas who wrote in the sixth century. Nennius provides us with a second source but not until the 9th century. Bede is perhaps the best source. He wrote in 731 and used Gildas for much of his early information. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was compiled under King Alfred the Great in the late 9th century. The Chronicle relied upon the oral traditions of the kings of West Saxon (Wessex).

Archaeology provides us with another source of information. Artifacts, primarily from grave sites has provided a wealth of pottery, jewelry, brooches, buckles, spear heads and all these give us a means of dating the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England.

Anglo-Saxon Brooch

The archaeological evidence provides us with a date considerably before the fifth century as the time of the arrival of Germanic troops. These Germanic troops were probably auxilliary troops employed by the Romans.

The historian, Tacitus, places the Saxon's origin at the neck of the Cimbric penninsula in what is now Holstein around 100 A.D. Ptolemy confirms this location in the 2d century. Between 250 and 450, the Saxons began to move westward and settled among the Frisians. In 486 the Franks defeated Syagrius and the Saxons were probably forced to move to Britain. Procopius states that the people of Britain are Angles, Frisians and Britains and probably included the Saxons with the Frisians. Bede writes that the invaders of Britain came from the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Bede places the Angles as being north of the Thames, the Saxons south of the Thames and the Jutes in Kent and the Isle of Wight. Bede states that the Angles came from Angulus (modern Schleswig); the Saxons from the coast between the Elbe and Weser valleys and the Jutes north of the Angles in Danish Juteland or Holstein. Some sources say that the Franks may have also numbered among the immigrants. Archaeology supports the inclusion of Swaefe, Alemanni, Swedes and Danes in the immigrants to Britain.

From Gildas, we learn that following the collapse of the Romans in Britain, a Saxon group of mercenaries, part of the Foedarati, which were Roman mercenaries of German origin, under the leadership of Hengist and Horsa was requested to come to the aid of Romanized England, then being threatened by the Scots and the Picts. Vortigern also feared the Romans in Gaul and Ambrosius in England. Hengist arrived with "3 keels" of warriors in 450, known in Latin as the "adventus Saxonum". Nennius records this as a settlement on the Isle of Thannet and the date as 447. Archaeological evidence supports this. Saxon reinforcements arrive and by 456, the Saxons revolted. Nennius and Gildas record that the revolt was primarily confined to Kent. Archaeological evidence shows the arrival of a mixed group of settlers in the mid fifth century and are reinforced until the 6th century. The government was unable to meet the promises made to the Saxons, who in turn, revolted and ravaged the countryside. The Foedarati began conquering territories on the southern and eastern shores of England, driving the Britons to the north and west. The Saxons called the native Britons "wealas" meaning foreigner or slave and from this word came the word Welsh. Eight to ten years later, the Britons began migrating to Brittany.

Under the leadership of Ambrosius Aurelianus, the British eventually rallied and a stalemate was reached following the battle of Mons Badonicus and England experienced a generation of peace. Ambrosius was based in Wiltshire, perhaps in Amesbury. At the time that Gildas wrote, in 540, evidence suggests that their was a migration of Germanic people out of Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records no activity in Kent from 473 until 565. It is during this time that Arthur is king, but Gildas makes no mention of him, though the Welsh write of him under the name Artorius.

Because the Anglo Saxons were an illiterate people, we know very little about the first hundred years following the Anglo-Saxon invasion. We do know that they established different kingdoms, with the Saxons in the south and west, the Angles in the east and north, and the Jutes on the Isle of Wight and the opposite mainland. Though they were separate peoples, they shared a common language and common customs. They were all an extremely warlike people. The king's power was not hereditary and paternal succession was not guaranteed. By the middle of the ninth century, the royal family of Wessex was accepted as the English royal family and held a hereditary right to rule. However, any member of the royal house with enough support could succeed the throne. In order to maintain his "right to rule", he had to continue to fight for the throne. The king was then confirmed by the witan or council of leaders.

Not only did they fight to hold onto the throne of their own kingdom but they would then fight other kings of other kingdoms for the right to be king of the English.

Following the Germanic invasion, the inhabitants gave their settlements new names. Names with the ending of -ton (fenced area), -wick (dwelling), -ham (home), -worth (homestead), -den (pasture), -hurst (wooded hill) and -burn (stream) all have Anglo-Saxon origins.

The Anglo-Saxons arrived in England as pagans, worshipping gods of nature. They held springs, rocks and trees in reverence. Rather than religion being a spiritual revelation, it was a means of ensuring material success. Anglo-Saxon gods were: Tiw, Wodin (Odin), Thor and Friya.

Anglo-Saxon Magic Glass

Though coins were minted, the Anglo-Saxon economy was not cash based. Most goods were bartered for jewelry or pottery and trade relied upon transport to be effective and water was the primary means of transport. Therefore, most successful markets were located near rivers.

Early Anglo-Saxon society was organized around clans or tribes and was centered around a system of reciprocity called 'cornitatus'. The eolderman expected military service from their thanes and the thanes expected protection and rewards from the lord.

In Anglo-Saxon society, women were better off than they would later become, even though Anglo-Saxon society was decidedly patriarchal. She could own property in her own right and she could rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her own consent and any personal goods, including land, which she brought into the marriage, remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage, her relatives were expected to protect her interests.

Chrisitanity came to the Anglo-Saxons from two directions. From Wales, Cornwall and particularly Ireland, the Celtic Church made inroads in the north from a base on Lindisfarne Island. From the south, the Roman Catholic Church spread from their base at the mission of St.Augustine, successfully converting Æthelbert, King of Kent in 597.

Roman Christianity was brought to England for the first time by Augustine, a missionary sent to England by Pope Gregory. King Æthelbert's wife, the Frankish Bertha, was already a Christian and practiced her faith at her church of St.Martin's in Canterbury, which was built from the Roman ruins of the old city. In 602, Augustine was proclaimed as Archbishop of Canterbury and began building the St.Augustine Cathedral. Augustine began to criticize the Celtic Church for failing to follow prescribed Roman worship rituals and standards. In 605 Augustine died and was buried in St.Augustine's Abbey. He later became a saint. St.Augustine was succeeded by St.Laurence of Canterbury.

The legend of the conversion is that Æthelbert, unsure of the intent of the Chrisian magicians, arranged a meeting in the open air under an oak tree to ensure that they couldn't cast a spell over him. This meeting led to Æthelbert's conversion and the establishment in Canterbury of the seat of the pre-eminent archbishop in England. We can be certain that Bertha played a crucial role in Æthelbert's conversion. Æthelbert was baptized on Whitsunday 2 Jun 597. As many as 10,000 are said to have followed Æthelbert in baptism within a few months.

The Celtic and the Roman churches had differences of opinion and practice. The Celtic church was ascetic, fervent and based upon a monastic life that was more loosely organized than the Roman church, which was more conscious of structure, discipline and moderation. They also celebrated Easter on different days. The Celtic church had ceased comminication with the Roman church almost two centuries before. Representatives from both churches met with Oswiu, King of Northumbria, who was then asked to choose between the two missions at the Synod of Whitby in 664. Oswiu chose Rome, though some of the later kings found favor with the Celtic church.

The church became the only truly national entity, tying the different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms together. The early monastaries of Northumberland were centers of learning and the arts until Viking raids in the 9th century. The monk, Bede, lived most of his life at the monastery of Jarrow in Northumbria. The nearby monastery of Lindisfarne is famous for its illustrated Bible, an 8th century masterpiece of Celtic inspired art.

Churches became the forum for all education and under Alfred the Great, church schools were encouraged, as was the translation of Latin works into English. The higher church officials councilled the king, witnessed charters and administered the estates of the church, which were often very large.

The Gospel was spread through traveling monks based in monasteries. These monks traveled the countryside on foot throughout the countryside. This was especially true of the Celtic monasteries. Regional, or district monasteries were established to serve particular areas. Most church buildings were built of stone but this was not true of domestic buildings, which seldom even had a stone foundation. Most domestic buildings were wooden with low, thatched roofs, an open hearth in the floor of earth or gravel and walls of planks or wattle and daub. Fire was an ever present danger.

Anglo-Saxon Cross

The windows of the stone Anglo-Saxon churches were narrow, small and deep set, with casings that splayed out to both the interior and exterior. The heads of the windows were rounded or triangular in shape. The idea of church towers is Saxon in origin and were developed out of a need to deal with attacks of the Danes. The towers were used as lookout posts and in times of attack, provided a refuge for villagers from the invaders.

Many of the first Anglo-Saxon churches were not buildings at all but merely a carved cross that marked a convenient site for the itinerant monks to preach to the local population. These crosses were often placed on sites that were pagan sacred sites of worship. Later, church buildings were built on the same spot in order to maintain a continuity of worship.

Following Æthelbert's death in 1616, his son, Eadbald, a pagan, succeeded him. Persecution of Christians followed. St. Justus, who had been sent to England by Pope Gregory at the request of Augustine, and appointed to be the first Bishop of Rochester, fled England for Gaul but after a year he was reinsted. In 624, St.Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury and conscrated Romanus as his successor as Bishop of Rochester. Justus continued Augustinian's work by writing letters to the British and Irish Chrisitans to conform to the Roman church but not given to tactfulness, his letter was largely ignored. He is noted for the evangelization of Northumbria. Paulinus was consecrated by Justus to become the first Archbishop of York and within two years, King Edwin of Northumberland was baptized along with many of his people in a small church that Paulinus had built at York, near present York Minster. Justus died about 627.

Anglo-Saxon's differentiated between two persons with the same name by adding the place they came from or their job at the end of their first name. Those surnames today, which end in a place or a job, have Anglo-Saxon origins.

Anglo-Saxon men wore a tunic, gathered at the waist along with hose and soft shoes. A woman's robe extended to the feet. These tunics or robes were made of linen or wool with the more expensive being colorfully dyed and adorned with exotic borders. Both rich and poor used brooches to fix the clothing and stone amulets were worn for luck.

Weapons of the Anglo-Saxon included a spear made with a seven foot long ash shaft and an iron head. This spear was used for throwing as well as jabbing. Shields were round and made of wood covered with leather, with an iron boss in the center. The nobles used swords, about thirty inches long and made of iron with steel edges. Often, the hilt was elaborately carved and jewelled and inscribed with good luck symbols and the names of gods.

Anglo-Saxon Sword Hilt and Pommel

Travel was common and the main trade routes followed the old Roman roads. If one ventured off the main roads, travel was dangerous and travellers were advised to make lots of noise with shouts and horns so as not to be confused with the outlaws that plagued the less-populated roads.

The land was divided into seven separate kingdoms or shires, (similar to states) according to the territory of the first tribes. This was commonly referred to as the heptarchy. Each shire was ruled over by a king, whose sons were known as aethelings. The shire was divided into hundreds (similar to counties) and these were the primary units of administration and the court system.

The Anglo-Saxon king, whether over-kings or under-kings, were peripatetic, travelling across their kingdoms dispensing justice, gifts, resolving disputes and entertaining their nobles, as well as visiting dignitaries. Their court accompanied them wherever they went. All of these, the king and his court were fed locally by the king's estates and collected tribute. Royal tribute and dues were collected at the king's tuns, not often identical to the king's royal hall in the district. Taxes were paid by coin by sale of surplus produce, while at the same time, dues were commuted to payment in coin rather than in kind.

The king's tun was a point of public assembly where people came together not only to give the king and his entourage board and lodging but they also appealed to the king in cases of dispute, appeals, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, and ambassadors heard and replied to. People also assembled for other reasons such as to hold fairs. Fairs had been held since prehistoric times and often on tribal boundaries for communities to exchange their surpluses and specialties. Some fairs only dealt with one sort of commodity such as horses. Some places are named -port, an Old English word for market.

Another reason for coming together was for sports or games or sometimes both together. There were also gatherings for holy reasons, such as visiting a bishop or holy place or shrine. The hundred meeting might also provide a gathering place, the shire moot another but larger areas also had assemblies.

There also appears to have been an Anglo-Saxon hierarchy of settlements as well as a system of specialism at individual settlements due to a specialization of a particular craft, such as shoe making or soap making or wool carding. Some places were named for their specialism or services or even for a system of seasonal pasture.

The basic unit of land was called the hide and was enough land to support one family and varied in size from 40 acres to 4 square miles. Approximately 100 hides formed a hundred and each villare or shire contained many hundreds. For each hundred, one leader known as the "hundred eolder" was responsible for the administration, justice and supply of military troops as well as the position of leadership of those forces. This office was not hereditary but by the tenth century, was selected among a few outstanding families.

Ealdormen and shire-reeves (sheriffs) were appointed to ensure the king's interests. Within the shires were towns or burhs that ranged in size from 500 to 5,000. Initially only some towns were walled, often with earthworks reminiscent with the Bronze Age.

Wealthier lords lived on estates, with a main rectangular hall surrounded by outlying buildings for storage and various living and working purposes. Inside the hall, the lord might hang expensive wall hangings or paintings. Feasts were held within the hall, as the lord was expected to be a lavish host.

Society was divided into various classes at which the top was the king, the war leader who was expected to provide his followers with opportunities for plunder and glory. The king who denied his followers opportunities for land, slaves and plunder might very well be assasinated.

Below the king were two levels of freemen: the upper class thanes and the lower class ceorls with the division being made in terms of the amount of land owned. A thane owned at least five hides of land. Aside from the amount of land owned a ceorl might be wealthier than a thane. A thane was similar to a knight and stood at the lowest level of the aristocracy. A thane that offered good service was rewarded with gifts, land and elevation to eolderman. Members of the clergy held the title of thane and bishops held the title of eolderman.

The ceorls were divided into three classes of freemen: the geneatas, a peasant aristocracy who paid rent to their overlord, the kotsetlas and the geburs or lower middle class. All ceorls had the right and duty to serve in the fyrd, which was the Anglo-Saxon military. If a ceorl held five hides of land, he became entitled to the rights of a thane but could not be elevated to the title of eolderman.

The fyrd consisted of highly trained thanes chosen from the hundred. These thanes became professional warriors because their position in the society depended upon it. In times of peace, thanes served one month of every three in rotation. One of the greatest virtues of a thane was his loyalty to his lord and if their king or lord died in battle, his men were expected to die avenging his death, as it was dishonorable to leave a battlefield where one's lord or king had been slain. Those that did so were executed by their lord's successor. When not at war, the fyrd also acted as a police force.

Below the thanes and ceorls were slaves or bondsman, known as the theow. This was the largest commercial enterprise of the Dark Ages. Some men and women were born into slavery but war was the most common source of slaves. Slavery was the fate of many conquered Celtic Britons. Those unable to pay a fine might become slaves and in some cases a child might be sold into slavery in time of famine to ensure their survival. Slavery might not last a lifetime as a slave could be ransomed by friends or relatives or granted freedom by their master. Those enslaved for an inability to pay a fine, might be released from slavery once their labor measured the amount of the debt.

Slavery was an integral part of Anglo-Saxon economy. Almost all of the slaves traded in the middle ages were captured in raids or warfare. It was the practice to kill the leaders of the defeated army and enslave the villagers. Many of these slaves were indigenous Celts. Slavery was abolished at the Westminster Council in 1102.

Anglo-Saxon society was knit together with strong ties to kin and lord. The tie was to the lord himself, not his station. A kingdom was only as strong as its war-leader king. The king could not create new laws but in exceptional circumstance; rather their role was to uphold and clarify existing laws or customs. A new king would first assure his subjects that he would uphold their ancient privileges, laws and customs.

The ties of kinship meant that the relatives of a murdered person was obligated to exact vengeance for his or her death, which led to bloody and extensive feuds. In order to stop this, wergelds were created, which set a monetary value on a person's life based upon their wealth and social status and this value could also be used to set the fine payable if a person was injured or offended. The higher one's social status, the higher the fine levied against them.

The emphasis on social standing led to courts that did not attempt to discover the facts, instead, it was up to each party to get as many people as possible to swear to the rightness of their case. These people were called 'oath helpers'. If the person was actually guilty, it was difficult for them to gather enough oath helpers. The word of a thane counted for that of six ceorls.

If the accused was found guilty, while maintaining his innocense, and was unable to find enough oath helpers, he would be allowed to prove his innocense through 'trial by ordeal'. This was administered by church officials and before the trial began, the accused would be given the opportunity to confess. If he did not confess, he was given the choice between two ordeals: water or iron. In the cold water ordeal, the accused was given holy water to drink and was then thrown in the river; the guilty floated and the innocent sank. In the hot water ordeal, the accused placed his hand in boiling water and retrieved a stone. For the iron ordeal, the accused carried a glowing iron bar of nine feet. After the hot water and iron trials, the defendant's hand was bandaged. If the wound healed without festering, the guilty was presumed innocent.

There were no jails or prison officers so there were only three options when passing sentence: fines, mutilation and death. Crimes such as arson, obvious murder and treachery to one's lord received no compensation and the only punishment was death and forfeiture of one's property to the king. The church preferred mutilation to death, as this allowed the guilty to expiate his crime and save his soul.

The Anglo-Saxons brought with them from the Continent a well devoloped legal system. The hundred court was the lowest echelon of the judiciary system and met every four weeks. Above the hundred court was the shire court, meeting twice a year. The eoldorman, bishop and king's shire-reeve presided over the shire court.

The vast majority of people were farmers, the farms, at first, being owned outright. The ceorls worked in common fields that were divided into narrow strips that were shared out alternately so that each farmer received an equal share of the good and the bad land. These were later consolidated into large estates owned by the lord and the ceorls worked the land in return for service or produce or work the lord's land a given number of days a year. These estates eventually became commercial enterprises, complete with a grain mill.

Crops most frequently grown included wheat, oats, rye and barley as well as peas, beans and lentils. Honey provided the only sweetener and the base for the popular drink, mead. Meat was acquired from cattle, goats and sheep. Horses and oxen were used for farm labor and transportation.

Anglo-Saxon drinking horn

The Anglo-Saxon was fond of dice and board games such as chess. Elaborate riddles were popular. Also popular was horse-racing and hunting. Harps were popular at feasts as was juggling balls and knives.

Feasts and festivals were especially popular among the Anglo-Saxon pagans and despite religious reforms of the Christian church, these feasts and festivals continued among Christian Anglo-Saxons. Halloween, a tradition inherited from the Celts and altered by the Romans, preceded the Christian feast of Hallowmas or All Saint's Day. Halloween was the last evening of the year and as such, was regarded as a time for examining portents of the future. Easter evolved from the name of the pagan Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was celebrated in April. The word "yule" has roots in the pagan midwinger celebration of Geol (pronounced "yule").