The German people were originally of the same Indo-European group that settled the area between the Black and Caspian Seas between 3,000 and 2,000 BC. The group that settled in Germany were also the ancestors of the Franks, Vandals and Sueves.

The German people had little ethnic solidarity and by the seventh century BC, they began a division into many peoples. The origin of the word German is obscure and these peoples did not call themselves Germans.

In the fourth century BC, these peoples began to rise to significance simultaneous to the breakup of Celtic culture in central Europe. They are first recorded in Norway and Jutland in the fourth century BC by a Greek navigator in their first contact with the Romans. Roman historians, Tacitus records them in Germania and Agricola but apart from describing them as warlike and barbarous, there is little mention of them in Caesar's Commentaries.

In the fifth and sixth centuries, the Celtic migrations took place. The chief German tribes include: Alemanni, Angles, Burgundii, Lombards, Saxons and Visigoths. In varioius ancient periods, other Germanic tribes appeared.

In the first century, the Chamavi were noted north of the Rhine and southeast of the Zuider Zee and by the fourth century they had moved southward, joining the Franks. In the second century BC, the Cimbri appeared in Transalpine Gaul and by 103 BC, migrated to Italy along with some Helvetii and Teutons and were crushed by Marius in 101 BC. The Eruli or Heruli, possibly from Jutland, inhabited the shores of the Sea of Azov, east of the Don and in the 3d century A.D., they joined the Goths against the Huns and then joined Odoacer in his attack on the Roman Empire and finally settled in the northern territory of Lower Austria. The Lombards destroyed their kingdom in the sixth century and they disappeared from history.

By 100 BC, these Indo-European peoples had moved into central and southern areas of present Germany. These peoples were composed of three major tribal groups: the eastern Germanic tribes lived along the Oder and the Vistula Rivers; a northern Germanic tribe inhabited the southern part of present Scandinavia while the western Germanic tribe was situated south of Jutland and the area between the North Sea and the Elbe, Rhine and Main Rivers.

In 70 BC, Rome, under Julius Caesar, conquered the Suevian tribe and then moved to expand their presence into Germanic territory.

The Suevian tribe of Germania defeated the Roman Army, under the Roman provinical governor, Arminius, at the Battle of Teutenburg Forest in 9 A.D. The Romans reconquered some of the lost territory along the Rhine and Danube Rivers and fortified the frontiers known as the Limes, between in the first century.

A Gothic people, the Gepidae, moved southward from the Baltic at the Vistula into the Hungarian Plain west of the Danube. These Gepidae were overwhelmed by Attila and the Huns but survived to be defeated by Theororic the Great in 489 and again by the Lombards and Avars in 566 and disappear into history.

Originally part of the Suebi, the Marcomanni, lived north of the Danube in Germany in the first and second century but were defeated by Marcus Aurelius in the Marcomannic War of 166-180, when they moved into the country of the Celtic Boii and expanded into Bavaria where they are seen as the Baiuoarii or Boiarii and are the ancestors of the Bavarians.

The Suebi or Suevi were a central German people from whom Swabia is named. This group probably included a number of smaller tribes of whom the Alemanni and Marcomanni were two. Others were the Semoni, the Hermunduri and the Quadi. Living near the Elbe about 650 BC, the Suebi spread into southern Germany and by 100 BC, they were no longer a homogenous unit.

The Teutons, who allied with the Cimbri in 103 BC, were crushed in 102 BC by Marius at Aquae Sextiae (Aix-en-Provence). These German peoples are sometimes referred to as Teutonic.

In the second through the sixth centuries, there was a great migration among the Germanic peoples and the Roman Empire collapsed. These Germanic migrations had lasting effects upon the creation of modern Europe, the very face of Europe being transformed by a diversity of Germanic tribes, which would rise to become the major cultural and political groups of the Middle Ages in Europe: the English, French, Scandinavians, Icelanders and the Germans themselves.

These migrations would involve four major peoples: the Alans, the Huns, the Germans and the Slavs. Each migration was distinct and yet were intimately tied to one another. The migration of the Huns would begin the migration of the Alanic and Germanic expansions and the Germanic expansions would displace the Slavs, who then migrated into Europe. The Germanic tribes were the most important of these migrations.

These Germanic tribes appear to be Celtic in origin, speaking a Germinic derivation of Celtic and orginated in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany developing into a warrior culture and migrating south and east, while developing into a kingship.

The "comitatus" was the most significant aspect of the Germanic social structure and consisted of a retinue of warriors that attached themselves to a king voluntarily, providing protection for the king who offered them rewards in turn for their service.

The economy of the Germanic tribe was based upon reciprocity rather than trade, in which goods and services were given as gifts as an expression of the social relationship with a snese of mutual obligation within the members of the group.

Upon contact with Rome, the tribes adopted the material technology and culture of Rome and developed a type of writing known as Runic around the third century A.D.

Each of the individual tribes expressed origins from sacred animals and eventually each individual tribe adopted pantheons of gods, specific to the tribe. Eventually, these distinct gods were melded into a pantheon of gods, shared by the whole and led by Wodan, god of sky and storm, who represented the forces of nature, as well as the god of the afterlife. Like the Celts, the Germanic religious practice was shamanistic, taking place in groves or sometimes by bodies of water and had a very high sense of nature.

The Gothic tribes were originally from Scandinavia, migrating into Europe and eastward, into southern Russia. Why the Gothic tribes migrated is a mystery but it is thought that perhaps they were overpopulated or were flooded out of Scandinavia as the Baltic Sea was transformed from a lake into a part of the North Sea; the land area suffering powerful land changes and devastating floods.

The word Goth, itself, is Latin. The Goths called themselves Gut-thiuda or "Gut" people, the meaning of which is unknown but seems to be the Gothic word for pour, possibly a reference to the floods in Scandinavia.

Another of the Germanic tribes during the migratory period were the Vandals, also originating in Scandinavia. The Vandals moved into Sweden about 100 BC and began to expand across Europe at the end of the second century A.D. Some of these Vandals went to Slovakia and Hungary but in the fifth century the Silingi Vandals joined other Germanic and Alanic tribes invading first Gaul and then Spain. The Vandals were forced out of both areas by the Franks and the Goths but the Vandals, with their alliances, crossed to North Africa from Spain and began conquests under their king, Geiseric, culminating in the conquest of Carthage in 439.

The Vandals of North Africa established a despotic government centered upon a king along with an exclusive court of nobility.

Little cultural exchange occurred in North Africa, which was largely dominated by Roman institutions and culture. Roman administrators disappeared with the monarchy of Geirseric, Roman learning, art and architecture continued uninterrupted and uninfluenced by Vandal culture beyond some weapons and adornment, which originated with the Vandals.

In southern Russia, the Goths came into contact with the Turks and the Persian civilization and adopted some of their technology. From this contact, the Russian Goths developed one of the most effective cavalries in the world and was considered undefeatable.

In the third century, the Russian Goths began to migrate for reasons that are unknown. Under their king, Ostrogotha, the Ostrogoths began to make raids into the Balkans, Asia Minor and Greece against the Roman Empire.

The Goths raiding the Empire were two distinct groups, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths, who both came to control much of the area north of the Danube and the Balksns.

The invasion of the Huns in 375, destroyed the Gothic empire and a new series of migrations began with the Goths migrating into Roman territory in eastern Bulgaria, soon rebelling against Roman authority. Easily defeating the Roman army in Bulgaria in 378, the Goths continued to migrate into Italy and there, under their king, Alaric, they captured Rome in 410. Their original goal was to force the Emperor to grant them better lands and therefore, the Goths did little damage to Roman life or property in Rome. Emperor Theodosius, in 418, granted the Visigoths land in southern Gaul.

The Goths continued to migrate over the Pyrenees into Spain, establishing a kingdom there and in southern Gaul, they established the kingdom of Toulouse. Only the invasion of the Franks into Gaul prevented the Goths from conquering the rest of Gaul.

Visigothic Toulouse was consumed by the Frankish invasion of Clovis, creating a new empire in Europe, the Merovingian empire. The Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse and the Burgundian kingdom to the north lost their ethnic character as it was absorbed into the political and ethnic identity of the Franks.

The Franks originated as a set of distinct, small tribal groups that joined with one another in a confederacy and regarded themselves as having the same ethic identity. The Franks had no success against Rome. Rome settled the Franks in various areas and ceded some territory to them. The Franks changed from a military democracy around the end of the fourth century into a set os communities under minor kings. The Franks were primarily allies of Rome, defending Roman territory bravely against the Huns and later, the Visigoths.

With Clovis, all this changed in 486 as Clovis defeated the last Roman ruler, Syagrius, at Soissons. This victory, along with military victories over the Visigoths, Alemans and Burgundians allowed Clovis to establish a Frankish empire that absorbed the German tribes, creating a larger ethnic identity of the Franks.

Arriving into North Africa with the Vandals, was Christianity, which the Vandals had adopted while in Spain during the fifth century, however, theirs was an Arian Christianity marked by the distinction that God the Father and God the Son were distinct and separate persons, a belief that had been declared as heresy. The Vandals, having been converted by Arians (Wulfila was semi-Arian) and by 410, the Vandals were fully Arian in their beliefs. This variation from the Roman church, alienated the Vandals of North Africa from their Roman church neighbors. As Roman Christianity was the universal form of Christianity among their conquered lands, the Vandals had to suppress it. This suppression was not effective. The Roman church had strong leaders, such as Fulgentius, who had become the ecclesiastical leader of North Africa following the death of Autustine. Also, Vandal Arians suffered a lack of well-educated theologians and in religious disputes, the Vandal Arians were hopelessly out matched.

There were two major empires in Europe in the year 500. The Ostrogoths controlling Italy and eastward and Gaul and the western portions of Germany under the Frankish king, Clovis I. Of these two, the Ostrogoths were the most powerful. Occupying the traditional territories of the Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths were educated and ministered by a well-educated Roman aristocratic government. They were wealthy, well-educated and held rich lands. They also held the Roman Church.

The Franks, under Clovis I, held the lands traditionally known as the hinterlands, where there were no schools, aristocracy or bureaucrats. In his time, Clovis was considered a barbarian.

However, the Ostrogothic kingdom fell to the Byzantines, leaving the Roman church devastated. The formerly great cities of Rome were depopulated by a crushing economic depression.

This, then left the future of Europe to the Franks and the Gaulish empire, the kingdom of the Merovingians. Significant in this was the conversion of Clovis I to Roman Christianity. With the Arian Christian beliefs of the Ostrogoths, both the Roman and the Byzantine churches, as well as all other Germanic peoples with the exception of the Spanish Visigoths, considered the Ostrogoths as dismal heretics. In this religious union, Clovis I sought the unity with the Byzantines, Romans and Gauls.

Establishing his capital at the Gaulish fort of Paris, named after the Celtic tribe that built the fort, Clovis I established himself as the owner of the empire. He saw government's purpose as primarily fighting and conquest so there was no emphasis placed upon government administration or reading and writing. The only part of Roman government that Clovis sought to maintain was that of taxation, thought that failed because tax collectors did not live very long.

Later Merovingian kings were unable to maintain this loose central government and land granted to the nobility was later regarded as grantees, who regarded themselves as independent rulers. These independent rulers assumed the Latin term of "dux" (meaning ruler) and led to the title of duke, thereby duchies were established. The real power in Frankish territory was held by these dukes and the monarchy was more an afterthought.

In 534, the Vandals were defeated by the Byzantine general, Belisarius and in 534 the Arian church was destroyed as were all the writings of the Arian Church.

Visigoths in Spain continued to dominate the area until 711, when Muslim invders conquered most of Spain but, for the most part, Visigothic culture was absorbed by late Roman culture. The Visigoths had adopted an heretical form of Christianity, Arianism, but the Spanish Goths abandoned it for Roman Christianity.

One of the largest of the Germanic tribes were the Visigoths, which probably numbered around 100,000 people. In 476, German armies led by Odovacar defeated the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus.

In 751, Pepin the Short deposed the dynasty of the Merovingians and established the Carolingians. His son, Charlemagne conquered the Saxons, extending the Frankish domain in Germany to the Elbe.

By 800, the group that settled in France, the Franks, under Charlemagne, conquered the original group in Germany, establishing the Holy Roman Empire. Following Charlemagne's death, the Holy Roman Empire was divided by Charlemagne's grandsons in the Treaty of Verdun, into what is now France, Germany and Italy. Louis II (Louis the German) became the ruler of Germany. Lotharingia (Lorraine) was added to Louis the German's territory in the Treaty of Mersen in 870. He was followed by Charles III (Charles the Fat) in 876, when again, the territory was divided among Louis the German's sons: Carloman, Louis the Younger and Charles III. Charles III was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 881.

The territory was again reunited under Emperor Arnulf but during his reign (887-899) and that of his son, Louis the Child (900-911), last of the Carolingian kings in Germany, the Norsemen, Slavs and Magyars began to make inroads into the territory that contributed to the economic breakdown and localization, which was to manifest itself in the manorial system.

Powerful duchies emerged in the growth of feudalism with the dukes of Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony and Upper and Lower Lorraine emerging as the most powerful magnates of Germany. Upon the death of Louis the Child in 911, they elected the Franconian duke, Conrad I as king. Conrad I's reign was one of struggles against the Magyars and the rebellious dukes, including Henry the Fowler of Saxony who succeeded him in 918 as Henry I, heralding a century of Saxon rule. Some royal authority was restored under Henry I, who also regained some territory from the Slavs and secured the election in 936 of his son, Otto I.

With Otto I, crowned in 962, the Holy Roman Empire came into existence. From this point until 1806, German kings also served as Holy Roman Emperors, with interests in Italy as well as Germany. This dual role served to decrease the power of the central authority in Germany, leading to the German dukes and their vassals increasing their power. The conflict between Emperors and Popes also served to undermine the central authority.

The German leaders continued to call themselves Holy Roman Emperors and ruled Germany and part of Italy. Later, these Holy Roman Emperors lost power to the smaller German and Italian lords in each region.

Frederick Barbarossa (Emperor Frederick I), whose reign was 1152-1190, was of the Hohenstaufen line and was one of the most energetic medieval German ruler. He challenged the power of the Pope but was defeated by the Lombard League in 1176. Frederick I did succeed in partitioning the domains of Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria in 1180, destroying the last great independent duchy.

Campaigns in the 12th and 13th centuries against the Slavs (Wends) allowed tremendous eastward expansion and the establishment of the margraviate of Brandenbuass and the Teutonic Knights. Ther reign of Frederick II (1212-1250) was a turbulent period in which Frederick II engaged in a major conflict with the papacy and left Germany in a state of anarchy. Though several kings appeared, Germany remained in a state of lawlessness. The dark period of the Great Interregnum (1254-1273) ended with the election of Rudolf I, count of Hapsburg, as German king though neither he nor his successors was able to establish a centralized monarchy. Though France, England and Spain were moving towards greater centralized power in the monarchy, Germany alone stood with a weak central monarchy.

The emperors relied upon the prosperous cities to restrain the power of the nobles. Many of these cities formed leagues of common defense such as the Hanseatic League and the Swabian League.

During the fifteenth century, German commerce and banking prospered and the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries saw the merchant princes such as the Fugger and Welser families of Augsburg. These capitalists financed the campaigns of Emperor Charles V (1519-1558).

The Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century magnified the weakness of the Catholic imperial ruler, who found himself unable to prevent the conversion of several powerful princes to Protestantism. Religious and economic unrest culminated in the Peasant's War of 1524-1526 and the unsuccessful attempt of the Imperial Knights under Franz von Sickingem to secularize the ecclesiastical domains.

Protestant gains and continued unrest stimulated the Counter Reformation, which further divided the religious and political divisions in Germany. Following the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), a religious settlement was reached in which German unity was sacrificed. The war reduced Germany to misery and starvation, which led to a dramatic decrease in population and became, following the Peace of Westphalia, a loose confederation of petty principalities under a nominal emperor. The competition for peasant labor was increased by depopulation and served to perpetuate the institution of serfdom, then declining in western Europe.

 

References

The European Middle Ages: The Germans